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Weshalb die Nussknacker-Menschen ausstarben Zum Inhalt springen Filter
Standard Alphabetisch Neueste Älteste In der Zeit zwischen 2,5 und einer Millionen Jahren lebten in Süd- und Ostafrika nicht nur frühe Menschen, sondern auch seltsame Kreaturen, die sich mit einer speziellen Ernährungsweise an den Klimawandel angepasst hatten. Doch dann starben sie aus. Jetzt glauben Forscher herausgefunden zu haben, was ihr Schicksal besiegelte
Unabhängig, fundiert und leidenschaftlich: Über 200.000 Menschen lesen jeden Monat RiffReporter, um die Welt besser zu verstehen – bist du dabei?
Jetzt abonnieren und alles freischalten Im Juni 1938 wurde der Paläontologe und Arzt Robert Broom in Südafrika auf Teile eines fossilen Schädels aus einem Steinbruch bei Kromdraai in der Nähe Johannesburgs aufmerksam. Wie Broom bald erkannte, gehörten sie zu einem menschenähnlichen Wesen mit breitem Gesicht, gewaltigen Kiefern und riesigen Zähnen, das der Forscher Paranthropus robustus nannte (Paranthropus kommt aus dem Griechischen und bedeutet „parallel zum Menschen“, also etwa Nebenmensch). Die seltsame Kreatur blieb nicht allein: 1959 entdeckten die Paläoanthropologen Louis und Mary Leakey in der Olduvai-Schlucht in Tansania ein ganz ähnlich gebautes Wesen, dem sie den Namen Paranthropus boisei gaben – und das wegen seines Riesenkiefers den Spitznamen „Nussknackermensch“ erhielt. Eine dritte Art – Paranthropus aethiopicus – tauchte später im Tal des Omo-Flusses in Äthiopien und am Turkana-See in Kenia auf.
So wurde die Welt auf eine ungewöhnliche Gruppe von menschlichen Verwandten aufmerksam, die in der Zeit zwischen 2,5 und einer Millionen Jahren die Wald- und Savannengebiete Süd- und Ostafrikas durchstreifte. Die Wesen waren nicht groß: Die kräftiger gebauten Männchen maßen um die 1,30 bis maximal 1,40 Meter und die kleineren, leichteren Weibchen lagen zehn, zwanzig Zentimeter darunter. Das Gehirnvolumen war mit rund 500 Kubikzentimeter bescheiden und auch die Schneidezähne wie auch die Eckzähne waren eher klein. Die Vorbacken- und die Backenzähne dagegen gehörten zu den größten, die je bei Menschenverwandten gefunden wurden, und waren häufig stark abgenutzt. Auf dem Scheitel trugen die Wesen einen Knochenkamm, an dem – ähnlich wie bei einem Gorilla – gewaltige Kaumuskeln ansetzten, die dem Gebiss genügend Kraft verliehen, um auch harte Pflanzennahrung zu zerkleinern. Eindeutig menschlich aber mutet die Fortbewegungsweise von Paranthropus an: Die Nussknackermenschen liefen aufrecht auf zwei Beinen.
Was ein Klimawandel vor 2,5 Millionen Jahren auslöste Schon bald stellten sich die Paläoanthropologen die Frage, weshalb sich diese merkwürdigen Kreaturen entwickelt haben – in einer Epoche, in der die ersten Frühmenschen auftauchten, in der also auch die Gattung Homo , der Mensch, entstand. Und die Forscher fanden eine verblüffende Antwort. Der Schlüssel zum Verständnis liegt offenbar in einer dramatischen Veränderung der Umwelt, ausgelöst durch einen Klimawandel. Denn in jener Zeit vor rund 2,5 Millionen Jahren, als sowohl die Gattung Paranthropus als auch die Gattung Homo erstmals auf der Weltbühne auftauchten, wurde es über Jahrhunderttausende allmählich kälter und trockener. Es gab immer häufiger Dürreperioden, bewaldete und feuchte Landschaften schrumpften, die Savannen breiteten sich aus. Es wurde zunehmend ungemütlich auf der Erde, das Eiszeitalter kündigte sich an.
Der Schädel des Nussknackermenschen Paranthropus boisei zeigt oben einen knöchernen Kamm. Dort setzten einst seine gewaltigen Kaumuskeln an In der angenehmeren Epoche zuvor hatten die sogenannten Australopithecinen gelebt, aufrecht gehende Vormenschen mit nur kleinem Gehirn und durchschnittlich großen Zähnen, deren bekanntester Vertreter die berühmte „Lucy“ ist. Deren mehr als drei Millionen Jahre altes Skelett hatte der US-Anthropologe Donald Johanson 1974 in Äthiopien gefunden und nach einem Songtitel der Beatles benannt. Wissenschaftlich werden die Angehörigen ihrer Art als Australopithecus afarensis bezeichnet und man kann sie sich etwa als aufrecht gehende Affen vorstellen, deren Kopf noch recht stark an Schimpansen erinnerte, wobei ihnen allerdings die dolchförmigen Eckzähne fehlten. Die Arme waren deutlich länger als bei Menschen und sie lebten nicht nur am Boden, sondern kletterten auch häufig noch auf Bäume.
Die Nachfahren von Lucy reagierten nun – so die Hypothese – auf verschiedene Arten auf die harscher werdenden Umweltbedingungen und spalteten sich in zwei Linien auf. Die einen passten sich an, indem sie gewaltige Kaumuskeln und riesige Backenzähne ausprägten, mit denen sie auch hartschalige Nahrung wie Nüsse, Samen, Wurzeln oder Knollen sowie zähe Gräser zerkauen konnten; sie wurden zu Nussknackern. Tatsächlich konnten US-Forscher durch chemische Analyse der Zähne von Paranthropus boisei nachweisen, dass sich diese Art großenteils von Gras ernährte. Und ein internationales Team unter Beteiligung von Wissenschaftlern des Max-Planck-Instituts für evolutionäre Anthropologie in Leipzig kam zu dem Schluss: Die Zahnwurzeln von Paranthropus robustus waren weniger stark gespreizt als bei anderen Menschenverwandten und somit besser geeignet, beim Kauen starke senkrecht wirkende Kräfte zu bewältigen.
So wie auf dieser künstlerischen Darstellung könnten die Nussknackermenschen ausgesehen haben – noch sehr an Affen erinnernd, aber aufrecht auf zwei Beinen laufend Die anderen Nachkömmlinge von Lucy dagegen nutzten geistige Fähigkeiten, um dem Wandel zu trotzen. Ihr Gehirn vergrößerte sich und sie begannen Steinwerkzeuge herzustellen. Mit denen vermochten sie harte Pflanzen zu knacken oder die Kadaver und Knochen verendeter Tiere aufzubrechen, um an Fleisch und Knochenmark zu gelangen. Sie wurden zu Frühmenschen, zum Homo.
Krankheiten, die Konkurrenz des Menschen, Trockenheit – was setzte Paranthropus zu? Es waren also zwei unterschiedliche Strategien, um sich an einen drastischen Wandel der Umwelt anzupassen. Die einen setzten auf Intelligenz, die anderen auf die Kraft der Zähne. Und beide konnten damit lange Zeit gut überleben. Doch am Ende blieben die Nussknackermenschen auf der Strecke, verschwanden von der Erdoberfläche. Was war der Grund? Schließlich hatten sie sich mindestens 1,5 Millionen Jahre lang behaupten können – und das ist gewiss keine geringe Zeitspanne. Zum Vergleich: Der heutige Mensch, der Homo sapiens , existiert gerade mal seit rund 300.000 Jahren
Bislang gab es unterschiedliche Vermutungen, weshalb Paranthropus vor knapp einer Million Jahre ausstarb: Das Klima könnte sich erneut geändert haben, eine nur die Nussknacker betreffende Infektionskrankheit mochte sie hinweggerafft haben oder aber die Menschen könnten ihnen am Ende so heftige Konkurrenz gemacht haben, dass ihnen nicht genug Raum oder Nahrung blieb. Doch jetzt glaubt ein internationales Forscherteam unter Leitung von Thibaut Caley von der Universität Bordeaux die Frage anders beantworten zu können.
Der afrikanische Fluss Limpopo archiviert das Klima von Jahrmillionen Dazu entnahmen die Wissenschaftler, darunter Mitglieder des Zentrums für Marine Umweltwissenschaften „Marum“ der Universität Bremen, Sedimentproben aus der Maputo Bay vor der Küste Mosambiks im Südosten Afrika. Dort mündet der Fluss Limpopo in den Indischen Ozean. Da die Zuflüsse des Limpopo weite Teile Südafrikas und damit das Siedlungsgebiet von Paranthropus robustus durchströmen, nehmen sie mit ihrem Wasser auch Mikrofossilien sowie Pflanzenpollen mit und lagern sie am Boden der Meeresküste ab. So entsteht im Sediment der Maputo Bay eine Reihenfolge von Schichten, die sich aufeinander lagern und so Klimadaten aus früheren Epochen archivieren.
Die Analyse der Zahnwurzeln von Paranthropus robustus zeigte den Leipziger Forschern: Dieser Verwandte des Menschen zerkaute seine Nahrung auf spezielle Weise und konnte starke vertikale Kräfte ausüben Anhand der pflanzlichen Relikte im Sediment konnten die Forscher nun ermitteln, welche Vegetation damals gedieh und erkannten daher auch, wann es wärmer oder kälter, feuchter oder trockener war. So erhielten die Wissenschaftler eine lückenlose, mehr als zwei Millionen Jahre umfassende Dokumentation der Umwelt, in der die Nussknackermenschen lebten. Und da ergab sich eine Überraschung: In der Zeit vor einer Million bis 600.000 Jahren wurde das Klima im Durchschnitt noch trockener, breiteten sich offene, dürre Landschaften weiter aus. Doch nicht nur das: Zwischendurch gab es auch wieder feuchtere Perioden, die aber jeweils nur einige Jahrtausende andauerten, und in denen sich der Trend umkehrte.
Der letzte Nussknacker-Mensch lebte vor 900.000 Jahren – dann verliert sich die Spur Verglichen mit der Geschwindigkeit, in der sich das Klima in der Gegenwart ändert, mögen das lange Zeiträume sein. Doch eine biologische Anpassung an eine neue Umwelt, welche die Anatomie des Körpers über Mutationen von Genen und natürliche Auslese verändert, braucht ihre Zeit. Offenbar machten die relativ raschen Veränderungen seiner Umwelt Paranthropus robustus zu schaffen und er war ihnen am Ende nicht gewachsen. Die jüngsten Fossilien dieser Kreatur sind 900.000 Jahre alt; danach gibt es keinen gesicherten Nachweis mehr.
Andere Wesen aber überstanden die Klimakapriolen unbeschadet: Die Angehörigen der Gattung Homo . Im Gegensatz zu Paranthropus , der sich allein über den Körperbau an seine Umwelt angepasst hatte, waren die Frühmenschen dank ihrer größeren Gehirne in der Lage rasch zu reagieren. Sie konnten ihre Steinwerkzeuge und Waffen flink und beliebig verändern und so für die jeweils vorhandene Umwelt optimieren. Das war offenbar der Grund dafür, dass der Mensch letztlich zum Gewinner der Evolution wurde, während die wenig beweglichen Nussknacker-Leute untergingen. Um es mit den etwas abgewandelten Worten des russischen Ex-Präsidenten Michail Gorbatschow zu formulieren: „Wer nicht flexibel ist, den bestraft das Leben“.
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15.03.2024
7 min
Christian Weymayr
Henning Engeln
Henning Engeln ist Journalist und Buchautor, unter anderem arbeitet er für GEO. 2024 veröffentlichte er den Neandertaler-Roman „Der Mammut-Clan“ (www.neandertaler-roman )
Henning Engeln einmalig unterstützenabonnieren und weiterlesen Es tut uns leid, leider funktionieren einige Elemente der RiffReporter-Website nicht richtig, wenn JavaScript deaktiviert ist.